ICE Raids Shake California's Economic Foundation as Key Industries Face Labor Shortages

Enhanced enforcement actions target businesses across agriculture, construction, and hospitality sectors, disrupting supply chains and threatening $275 billion in annual economic output

By [Staff Reporter] The Wall Street Journal

California's economy is reeling from an unprecedented wave of Immigration and Customs Enforcement raids targeting workplaces across the state, as the Trump administration's immigration crackdown sends shockwaves through industries that depend heavily on undocumented workers.

Federal agents arrested more than 40 people in workplace raids in Los Angeles alone last week, including about two dozen employees from Ambiance Apparel in downtown LA's Fashion District. ICE has stepped up workplace sweeps in recent weeks on industries that rely heavily on immigrant workers, including construction sites and farms across California.

The enforcement actions are creating immediate economic disruption and raising questions about the long-term viability of California's labor-intensive industries. Business owners report revenue drops of $7,000 per week, with some restaurants forced to close early due to empty dining rooms as immigrant communities stay home out of fear.

Scale of Undocumented Employment

The Pew Research Center estimates that 1.8 million immigrants in California were undocumented in 2022, representing 17% of the state's immigrant population. Nearly one in ten California workers is an undocumented immigrant, with the state's labor force including about 1.75 million undocumented workers according to the Pew Research Center.

The concentration of undocumented workers varies dramatically by industry:

Agriculture: An estimated 45% of agriculture workers are undocumented, according to the Center for Migration Studies
Construction: 41% of workers are immigrants and 14% are undocumented, with the American Immigration Council reporting construction has the highest percentage of undocumented workers at 13.7 percent
Hospitality: The restaurant industry employs 1 million undocumented workers, or 10% of the total workforce
Domestic work: About a third of domestic workers in the U.S. — nannies, house cleaners and caregivers — are immigrants, and many are undocumented

Economic Impact Assessment

The economic stakes are enormous for California. Mass deportations would cost the state an estimated $275 billion in wages and other direct and indirect economic activity, according to a study by the Bay Area Council Economic Institute and UC Merced.

Undocumented immigrants in California are the source of $152 billion in economic output, roughly 5% of the state's total output. They paid nearly $8.5 billion in state and local taxes in 2022, including sales taxes, individual and business income taxes, property taxes, and unemployment taxes.

Immigrants and children of immigrants made up over half of all California workers from 2021-2023, representing 1 in 3 workers in the state.

Industry-Specific Disruptions

Agriculture Under Pressure

As the nation's top agricultural producer, California depends heavily on immigrant labor: 63% of the state's agricultural sector are immigrants and almost 26% are undocumented. In the early morning on Tuesday, Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) agents chased farmworkers through a field in Oxnard, California, with agents tackling and restraining workers amid rows of produce.

Teresa Romero, president of the United Farm Workers union, warned of dire consequences. "I can guarantee you that we're not going to have the workers that we need to do this work in agriculture. The agriculture industry in this country is going to disappear".

Construction Facing Workforce Crisis

George Carrillo, co-founder and CEO of the Hispanic Construction Council, estimates somewhere between 700,000 to 1 million undocumented workers in construction nationwide. "The people that you see building our homes, the ones that are paving the roads and our bridges, 50% of that skilled workforce is Hispanics".

The construction industry could face immediate labor shortages, delaying project timelines and increasing costs.

Small Business Devastation

The impact extends beyond large industries to small businesses that form the backbone of California's economy. Pedro Jimenez, who has run a Mexican restaurant in Los Angeles for 24 years, reports taking in $7,000 a week less than two weeks ago and has been forced to close early because his restaurant was empty.

About 40% of California's small businesses are owned by immigrants; nearly 11% of those are owned by undocumented immigrants.

Geographic Concentration of Impact

Geographic regions with higher proportions of undocumented residents, including the San Joaquin Valley, San Francisco Bay Area, Inland Empire and Los Angeles, would experience the worst impacts.

An estimated 950,000 people in Los Angeles County do not have legal immigration status, according to the Migration Policy Institute, representing about a tenth of the county's population.

Administration's Enforcement Escalation

ICE recorded more than 2,000 arrests each day Tuesday and Wednesday, a dramatic increase from the daily average of 660 arrests reported during Trump's first 100 days back at the White House. White House border czar Tom Homan said "Worksite enforcement operations are going to massively expand".

During President Trump's first 100 days, ICE arrested over 65,000 individuals, including 2,288 gang members and 1,329 accused or convicted of sex offenses, though the number of detainees arrested by ICE with no other criminal charges or convictions rose from about 860 in January to 7,800 this month - a more than 800% increase.

Long-Term Economic Prognosis

Economic experts warn of far-reaching consequences that extend beyond immediate disruption. A study from the University of Colorado Denver estimated that for every 1 million workers deported, 88,000 U.S. native workers lost employment.

Daniel Costa, director of immigration law and policy research at the Economic Policy Institute, predicts "We're going to see a really big push by the employer community to replace a lot of these workers with temporary work visas, so programs like H-2A and H-2B".

The shift could fundamentally alter California's labor market structure. "Immigration enforcement does not help U.S. workers, it does not open up jobs. There's no evidence that that happens," Costa said.

Ripple Effects Across the Economy

"People are afraid to go to work. Entire sectors of the economy will slow, and there will be workforce crises," said Ai-jen Poo, president of the National Domestic Workers Alliance.

Los Angeles Mayor Karen Bass reported getting reports of people not going to work and store shelves being empty because people in the city are worried about being detained by ICE.

Industry Response and Adaptation

Some business leaders are calling for comprehensive immigration reform rather than mass deportation. Nearly half of the state's undocumented population has been in California for 20 years or more and have extensive experience in their respective industries.

Agriculture and hospitality leaders want Trump to protect migrant workers, with some business owners pointing out that whole sectors of the economy depend on the labor of people Trump is deporting.

However, Carrillo noted the fundamental labor shortage challenge: "I think that if Americans really wanted to do the work, then they would be doing it. And the other thing is, too, we have a historical, low unemployment rate. So we don't have enough people in this country to do what we need to do".

Looking Ahead

The long-term outlook depends largely on the administration's enforcement priorities and Congress's willingness to address comprehensive immigration reform. The study found broad support in the business community for comprehensive federal immigration reform, a task Congress has struggled with for decades.

With federal attacks on immigrants putting millions of California families in fear and danger, the economic disruption could persist indefinitely without policy changes that balance enforcement with economic reality.

The question facing California's economy is whether it can adapt to operate without a workforce that has become integral to its agricultural, construction, and service sectors—or whether the economic costs will ultimately force a recalibration of immigration policy.

Agricultural Worker Shortage Threatens Food Supply, Prices

Guest worker programs and immigration reform emerge as potential solutions to labor crisis

California's agricultural sector faces an unprecedented workforce crisis as immigration enforcement targets the undocumented workers who harvest nearly half the nation's fruits and vegetables, threatening to disrupt food supply chains and drive up grocery prices nationwide.

Scale of Agricultural Dependence

The numbers reveal agriculture's deep reliance on immigrant labor. An estimated 45% of agriculture workers are undocumented, according to the Center for Migration Studies, while other estimates suggest the figure could be as high as 75%. In California specifically, 63% of the state's agricultural sector are immigrants and almost 26% are undocumented.

"The agricultural sector in the United States relies on foreign workers; 86 percent of agricultural workers in the United States are foreign-born," according to the Center for Migration Studies. California, which hosts nearly half the undocumented agricultural worker population, is also the largest producer of cash farm receipts in the United States, responsible for 13.7 percent of the U.S. share.

The workforce has deep roots in American communities. Approximately 71 percent of undocumented agricultural workers have been living in the United States for more than 10 years, with nearly half having arrived between 2000 and 2010.

Immediate Supply Chain Disruptions

The enforcement actions are already creating visible disruptions. In early morning raids Tuesday, Immigration and Customs Enforcement agents chased farmworkers through fields in Oxnard, California, tackling and restraining workers amid rows of produce.

"What I fear is that sometimes, out of necessity, we show up wherever there's work," one farmworker told KABC in Spanish. "With everything that is happening it's a bit difficult for us."

The consequences will be higher production costs, reduced domestic production of labor-intensive crops such as fresh fruits and vegetables, and increased food imports, according to the American Enterprise Institute.

Food Price Implications

The dairy industry estimates that retail milk prices would nearly double if farmers lost their foreign-born workers. Overall, agricultural output would fall by $30 to $60 billion if undocumented workers were removed from the agricultural sector.

These disruptions come at a time when food price inflation remains high in most countries. Information from the latest available data shows high inflation higher than 5% in 76.5% of low-income countries, contributing to an overall 40% increase in food prices over just five years.

"If immigration policies get tougher to the point where farm workers are harder to find or hire, this could cause a shortage," said food industry analyst Karthik Bhatt, noting that berries and apples are examples of fresh produce that is heavily reliant on migrant labor.

Regional Crop Vulnerabilities

Different agricultural regions face varying levels of risk:

California Central Valley: Accounts for massive fruit, vegetable, and nut production
Wine Country: Grape harvesting requires intensive seasonal labor
Dairy Operations: Year-round milking and animal care operations
Strawberry Fields: Labor-intensive harvesting in Ventura and Monterey counties

"I can guarantee you that we're not going to have the workers that we need to do this work in agriculture," said Teresa Romero, president of the United Farm Workers union. "The agriculture industry in this country is going to disappear."

H-2A Guest Worker Program Expansion

The H-2A temporary agricultural worker program has emerged as a potential solution, though it currently covers only a fraction of needed workers. The number of H-2A guest workers employed rose from 85,000 in 2012 to over 378,000 by 2023 and is expected to exceed 400,000 in 2025.

However, significant limitations constrain the program's effectiveness:

Seasonal Restriction: Only seasonal jobs qualify for H-2A certification, excluding year-round operations like dairy farming
Complex Application Process: Farmers must navigate extensive paperwork and regulatory requirements 60-75 days before work begins
Higher Costs: Farm owners incur higher upfront costs for recruitment, housing, and transportation requirements
Limited Scale: H-2A workers currently account for an estimated 12 percent of the crop workforce

"Farm owners incur higher upfront costs when they file requests for certified positions under H-2A, recruit new guest workers, and provide requisite housing and transportation," notes industry analysis.

Farm Workforce Modernization Act

The most comprehensive solution under congressional consideration is the Farm Workforce Modernization Act (FWMA), reintroduced in May 2025 with bipartisan support. The legislation would make major reforms to immigration policy for agricultural workers.

Key Provisions:

Legalization Path: Provides a pathway to legal status for current undocumented farmworkers and their families who have been working in agriculture.

H-2A Program Expansion:

Allows year-round agricultural jobs to qualify for H-2A certification, benefiting dairy farms and other continuous operations
Streamlines the application process to reduce bureaucratic burdens
Maintains worker protections for fair wages, safe housing, and proper treatment

E-Verify Requirements: Mandates that farm employers use the E-Verify system to check worker eligibility.

"The workforce crisis has come to a boiling point for farmers across the country," said Rep. Dan Newhouse (R-WA), who co-sponsored the bill. "Reintroducing the Farm Workforce Modernization Act sends a clear message to farmers that we are working hard to find solutions."

Industry Support for Reform

The legislation has garnered broad support from agricultural stakeholders:

Farm Organizations: Major agricultural groups support comprehensive reform
Food Industry: Processing companies recognize the need for stable workforce
Worker Advocates: Labor organizations back provisions for legal status and protections
Business Community: Food retailers understand supply chain vulnerabilities

"Central Valley farmers are the backbone of our nation's agricultural industry, but they continue to face serious challenges finding and retaining a reliable workforce," said Rep. David Valadao (R-CA).

Economic Imperative

The economic argument for reform is compelling. Since most U.S. workers migrated out of agricultural work in the early 20th century, domestic production of labor-intensive fruits and vegetables has only been possible through immigrant labor.

Rural Mexico, the primary source for U.S. farm labor for many decades, is also currently transitioning out of farmwork. U.S. farms have steadily increased wages to continue attracting farmworkers, but demographic trends suggest this labor source will continue to decline.

"Reduced farm labor supply in the U.S. may have only modest effects on grocery prices if consumers have access to imported fruits and vegetables," researchers note. "However, if the U.S. places high tariffs on food imports, then consumers will be subject to higher prices for domestically grown and imported food products."

Compromise Framework

Political observers suggest several elements could form the basis for bipartisan compromise:

Graduated Implementation: Phasing in reforms over several years to allow agricultural adaptation.

Enhanced Border Security: Pairing worker programs with increased border enforcement measures.

Regional Pilot Programs: Testing reforms in specific agricultural regions before nationwide implementation.

Skills-Based Priorities: Focusing legal status on workers with demonstrated agricultural experience and community ties.

Industry Adaptation Challenges

Even with policy changes, the agricultural sector faces significant adaptation challenges:

Mechanization Timeline: Technologies and equipment cannot be manufactured, tested, and distributed quickly enough to replace human labor
Skill Requirements: Many agricultural tasks require experience and judgment that automation cannot yet replicate
Investment Costs: Smaller farms lack capital for expensive mechanization alternatives
Crop Sensitivity: Time-sensitive harvesting means farms risk losing entire annual profits if workers are unavailable

Long-Term Outlook

Without comprehensive reform, agriculture faces a fundamental restructuring. The industry may be forced to shift toward less labor-intensive crops, increase mechanization despite high costs, or relocate production to countries with available workforces.

"Food security is national security," said Rep. Adam Gray (D-CA). "Labor shortages on our farms could lead to higher food prices across the country and the Valley cannot afford to be shorthanded."

The question facing policymakers is whether they can craft immigration solutions that balance enforcement priorities with economic realities before the agricultural workforce crisis reaches a tipping point that permanently alters America's food production capacity.

For consumers, the stakes are clear: the availability and affordability of fresh produce, dairy products, and other agricultural goods hang in the balance as the nation grapples with its most significant agricultural labor shortage in decades.

This sidebar accompanies "ICE Raids Shake California's Economic Foundation"

Construction Labor Shortage Threatens Housing Supply, Infrastructure Projects

Immigration enforcement could delay critical infrastructure and worsen California's housing crisis

California's construction industry faces an acute labor shortage that threatens to derail housing production and major infrastructure projects, as immigration raids target a workforce that makes up nearly 14% of the sector's employees.

Housing Supply Under Pressure

The timing couldn't be worse for California's housing market. The construction industry has the highest percentage of undocumented workers at 13.7 percent, surpassing agriculture (12.7 percent), hospitality (7.1 percent), general services (6.5 percent), and transportation and warehousing (5.5 percent).

"The people that you see building our homes, the ones that are paving the roads and our bridges, 50% of that skilled workforce is Hispanics," said George Carrillo, co-founder and CEO of the Hispanic Construction Council.

The impact varies dramatically by specialty trade. Within construction, the crafts with the highest proportions of undocumented workers are plasterers and stucco masons at 39 percent; drywall installers, ceiling tile installers and tapers at 36 percent; roofers at 36 percent; and painters and paperhangers at 31 percent.

These are precisely the trades essential for residential construction, meaning housing projects could face immediate bottlenecks even if foundation and framing crews remain intact.

Cost Escalation Pressures

Labor shortages typically drive wage inflation across the construction sector. With somewhere between 700,000 to 1 million undocumented workers in construction nationwide, the sudden removal of this workforce would create immediate upward pressure on labor costs.

Construction companies are already preparing for significant impacts. A significant portion of the construction workforce consists of undocumented immigrants. Raids could lead to immediate labor shortages, delaying project timelines and increasing costs.

Industry experts warn that remaining workers will command premium wages, potentially adding 15-25% to labor costs on major projects. For a typical California housing development, this could translate to thousands of dollars in additional costs per unit.

Infrastructure Projects at Risk

California's ambitious infrastructure agenda faces particular vulnerability. The state has committed billions to transit projects, highway improvements, and climate resilience initiatives that depend heavily on immigrant labor.

ICE has stepped up sweeps in recent weeks on industries that rely heavily on immigrant workers. That includes a local construction company in Exeter, Pennsylvania; construction sites in Brownsville, Texas; and a flood control project in New Orleans.

Major projects already underway could face immediate disruption:

High-Speed Rail: The project's Central Valley construction relies heavily on immigrant workers for earthwork and concrete operations
Transit Expansion: Los Angeles Metro and Bay Area transit projects employ large crews of undocumented workers
Seismic Retrofitting: Critical earthquake preparedness work depends on specialized trades with high immigrant participation

Delayed Project Timelines

Construction schedulers are preparing for significant delays. Unlike other industries where workers can be quickly replaced, construction trades require specialized skills and certifications that take months or years to develop.

"We have a workforce shortage in this country, period," Carrillo noted, highlighting the fundamental challenge facing contractors even before considering immigration enforcement.

The ripple effects extend beyond immediate project delays:

Permit Backlogs: Cities may need to extend permit timelines to account for construction delays
Financing Complications: Project financing often includes completion deadlines that could trigger penalties
Supply Chain Disruption: Delayed construction schedules could affect orders for materials and equipment

Regional Variations

The impact will hit different regions with varying intensity. Geographic regions with higher proportions of undocumented residents, including the San Joaquin Valley, San Francisco Bay Area, Inland Empire and Los Angeles, would experience the worst impacts.

In the Central Valley, where agricultural construction and food processing facilities dominate, the workforce disruption could be particularly severe. The Bay Area's tech campus construction and Los Angeles' entertainment industry infrastructure projects also face significant exposure.

Industry Response Strategies

Construction companies are developing contingency plans:

Accelerated Training Programs: Some firms are fast-tracking apprenticeship programs for legal residents
H-2B Visa Applications: Programs like H-2A and H-2B are primarily used in agriculture, construction and hospitality
Automation Investment: Companies are exploring robotic systems for tasks traditionally performed by hand
Project Sequencing: Prioritizing work that can be completed with available crews

Long-Term Market Implications

The construction labor shortage could fundamentally reshape California's building industry. Companies may accelerate adoption of prefabricated construction methods that require fewer on-site workers.

However, these adaptations take time to implement. In the near term, the state faces the prospect of significantly reduced housing production at a time when affordability remains a critical issue.

The construction industry's dependence on immigrant labor reflects broader economic realities that immigration enforcement alone cannot address. Without comprehensive workforce solutions, California's ambitious housing and infrastructure goals may prove increasingly difficult to achieve.

This sidebar accompanies "ICE Raids Shake California's Economic Foundation"

ICE Raids Compound Cross-Border Disruptions

Immigration enforcement and trade tensions create unprecedented strain on U.S.-Mexico economic relationship

The ICE raids targeting California's immigrant workforce are creating ripple effects that extend far beyond state borders, compounding broader disruptions to cross-border flows of both people and products that threaten the foundation of North American economic integration.

Deterrent Effect on Immigration Flows

The high-profile workplace raids are already demonstrating a deterrent effect on immigration patterns. CBP reported a sharp drop in the number of migrants that its agents and officers encountered at the U.S.-Mexico border in January 2025, taking 61,465 people into custody last month.

The administration's aggressive interior enforcement is creating what observers call a "chilling effect" that extends beyond actual raid locations. "It feels like you're on edge all the time," one immigrant advocate said about the Trump administration's immigration enforcement posture and the seemingly constant rumors of impending sweeps.

Rapid Deportation Pipeline

The enforcement actions are feeding directly into an accelerated deportation system. Mexico's foreign minister said four immigrants detained in the raid had already been removed from the United States, a speed that some advocates said was unusual. Some detainees report being processed and deported within 48 hours of arrest.

U.S. officials, including Border Patrol Chief Mike Banks, announced that flights removing Mexican citizens into Mexico's interior will now deport people into the southernmost part of the country, near the Guatemalan border. This strategy aims to make re-entry attempts more difficult and costly.

Southbound Migration Patterns

For the first time in recent memory, immigration advocates report a small but steady southbound flow of migrants who have given up on trying to apply for asylum in the United States. Several media reports documented a small but steady southbound flow of migrants who have given up on trying to apply for asylum in the United States, as the Trump administration has placed the U.S. asylum system effectively on hold.

The enforcement climate is also affecting established communities. Immigration lawyers report that some longtime residents are considering voluntary departure rather than risk detention and forced removal under harsher conditions.

Trade Relationship Under Strain

The immigration raids are occurring against the backdrop of an unprecedented trade war between the United States and its North American partners. President Donald J. Trump is implementing a 25% additional tariff on imports from Canada and Mexico and a 10% additional tariff on imports from China.

USMCA Framework Threatened

The tariff actions directly challenge the USMCA (formerly NAFTA) framework that has governed North American trade since 1994. Trump threatened 25 percent tariffs on all products from Canada and Mexico, which he said would "remain in effect until such time as drugs, in particular fentanyl, and all illegal aliens stop this invasion of our country".

Each vehicle produced under the USMCA framework crosses the border an average of eight times during production, meaning the tariffs would be compounded at each stage. This would lead to significant cost increases, impacts on employment, disrupted supply chains, and higher prices for consumers.

Commercial Disruption

Border trade operations are experiencing immediate disruption from the combination of enforcement actions and tariff threats. Normally, Bravo's firm sends 400 to 800 truckloads of goods across the border each week — everything from furniture to TVs to water-treatment equipment. But recently, the free-trade system screeched to a halt.

The uncertainty is affecting business planning across sectors:

Automotive Industry: Vehicle production faces compounded tariff costs at each border crossing
Agriculture: Fresh produce shipments face delays and increased inspection requirements
Manufacturing: Supply chains dependent on just-in-time delivery are experiencing disruptions
Energy: Mexican energy exports face varying tariff rates

Economic Interdependence at Risk

Despite the tensions, the fundamental economic relationship remains deeply entrenched. Mexico is the world's 15th largest economy, and was the second biggest buyer of American exports (after Canada) and the single largest US trading partner in 2023.

While trade accounts for 67% of Canada's GDP, 73% of Mexico's GDP, and 37% of China's GDP, it accounts for only 24% of U.S. GDP. This asymmetry gives the U.S. leverage but also means disruptions create proportionally larger impacts on partner countries.

Regional Response Strategies

Mexican Government Adaptation

Mexican President Claudia Sheinbaum has managed to secure temporary reprieves from tariff implementation through border security commitments. Mexican President Claudia Sheinbaum said Monday during a press briefing that after a conversation with U.S. President Donald Trump that the planned tariffs are on hold.

Mexico has deployed additional National Guard troops to border areas and increased cooperation with U.S. immigration enforcement, though critics question the sustainability of these measures.

Business Community Adjustments

Companies are developing contingency plans to manage cross-border disruption:

Supply Chain Diversification: Some firms are exploring alternative sourcing arrangements
Inventory Buffers: Companies are building larger stockpiles to weather potential disruptions
Route Modifications: Shippers are testing alternative border crossing points
Currency Hedging: Financial instruments to manage exchange rate volatility from trade tensions

Border Infrastructure Strain

The combination of increased immigration enforcement and trade disruptions is straining border infrastructure. ICE's currently funded detention capacity is 41,500 beds, and as deportation operations intensify, the agency "is running out of space to hold migrants".

Processing delays for legitimate commercial traffic are increasing as enforcement resources are redirected toward immigration operations. This creates additional costs for time-sensitive shipments and affects the reliability of cross-border supply chains.

Long-Term Economic Implications

Investment Climate Impact

The uncertainty surrounding trade and immigration policy is affecting investment decisions on both sides of the border. Foreign companies are reassessing plans for Mexican operations that depend on U.S. market access, while U.S. firms are questioning expansion plans into Mexico.

Labor Market Integration

The decades-long integration of North American labor markets faces its most serious challenge since NAFTA's implementation. Industries that have relied on cross-border workforce mobility are being forced to restructure operations around more restrictive immigration policies.

Regional Competitiveness

In a multipolar world where longstanding economic and political alliances become less certain, close collaboration between the US and its only neighbours will be critical to America's continued strength. The current disruptions risk weakening North America's competitive position relative to other trade blocs.

Future Scenarios

Escalation Path

If current trends continue, analysts predict further deterioration in cross-border relations. Additional ICE raids could trigger more aggressive Mexican responses, potentially including restrictions on U.S. business operations or cooperation on security issues.

Stabilization Potential

Sheinbaum's ability to pause the tariffs shows that Mexico has a strong bargaining position and will not need to capitulate entirely to Trump's demands. Diplomatic engagement may yet prevent complete breakdown of the relationship.

Structural Adaptation

Some economists suggest the current crisis could force a fundamental restructuring of North American economic integration, potentially leading to new frameworks that better balance trade, immigration, and security concerns.

Policy Intersection

The intersection of immigration enforcement and trade policy creates complex challenges that extend beyond any single agency's jurisdiction. ICE raids in California affect not just local communities but the entire North American economic ecosystem.

The speed and scale of current enforcement actions suggest that cross-border disruptions will continue to intensify, potentially reshaping decades of economic integration between the United States and Mexico.

For businesses, communities, and governments on both sides of the border, adapting to this new reality of heightened enforcement and trade tensions has become an urgent priority that will determine the future of North American economic cooperation.

This analysis accompanies "ICE Raids Shake California's Economic Foundation"

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TIME. (2025, June 12). Trump's Deportation Numbers, Explained. https://time.com/7292939/trump-deportations-ice-arrests/
Farm Aid. (2025, March 26). Immigration and the Food System. https://www.farmaid.org/blog/fact-sheet/immigration-and-the-food-system/
USDA Economic Research Service. Farm Labor. https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-economy/farm-labor

ICE raids and their uncertainty scare off workers, baffle businesses

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ICE Raids Shake California's Economic Foundation as Key Industries Face Labor Shortages